The Expression of Gratitude Essay Example For Students

The Expression of Gratitude Essay The purpose of this study was to test the effect of verbal expression of gratitude on relationship satisfaction. It was hypothesized that participants who expressed gratitude in a close relationship would have greater relationship satisfaction than those who did not express gratitude. At the end of the study, the experimental condition had a higher relationship satisfaction after gratitude expression, than the control condition after expression. For the experimental condition, relationship satisfaction after gratitude expression was significantly higher than before expression, while for the control, relationship satisfaction after expression was not significantly different than before expression. Thus, the hypothesis was supported. The current study indicates broader implications of gratitude expression that lie beyond relationship satisfaction. Since displays of appreciation suggest an increase in relationship satisfaction, gratitude can lead to longer lasting relationships between partners, and thus produce an overall decrease in divorce rates in society. Gratitude expression can also serve as positive reinforcement, with appreciation promoting re-occurrences of certain desirable acts. Specifically, following gratitude expression, recipients may be more likely to repeat a favor, or go along with an unfavorable idea a second time, and this can apply to business environments. Showing appreciation to buyers after purchases, in form of gift certificates or discounts, may strengthen bonds between customers and marketers, and encourage buyers to make future purchases. In fact, Carey et al. reported a 2% increase in store sales after customers were thanked over the phone for their purchases (1976). Although findings of thi. .e of college freshman. Cognition and Emotion, 9, 59-85. Pruyser, P. We will write a custom essay on The Expression of Gratitude specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now W. (1976). The minister as diagnostician: Personal problems in pastoral perspective. Philadelphia: Westminster Press. Saad, G. Gill, T. (2003). An evolutionary psychology perspective on gift-giving among young adults. Psychology Marketing, 20, 765-784. Simmel, G. (1950). The sociology of Georg Simmel. Glencoe, IL: Free Press. Simon, R. W., Nath, L. E. (2004). Gender and emotion in the United States: Do men and women differ in self reports of feelings or expressive behavior? American Journal of Sociology, 109, 1137-1176. Tesser, A., Gatewood, R., Driver, M. (1968). Some determinants of gratitude. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 9, 233-236. Walker, L.J., Pitts, R.C. (1998). Naturalistic conceptions of moral maturity. Developmental Psychology, 34, 403-419.

Prey essays

Prey essays I found Prey to be a very enjoyable book. It presents situations that could, in fact be realistic in the future, as this tends to be a common theme in Michael Crichtons writings. The book also puts forward interesting concepts in Nanotechnology that mankind is not too far from achieving. Michael Crichtons writing in Prey is ingenious because one conflict cleverly leads to another, each new conflict growing as the old one gradually fades. He utilizes the first person point of view to get the reader so immersed in the main character that he or she feels his emotions. Michael Crichtons brilliant writing creates an excellent book that will keep any reader captivated for hours on end. Prey has brought a new awareness to me of how quickly nanotechnology is developing and what a promising technology it is. Because of Michael Crichtons extensive knowledge in the field of science and his brilliant writing abilities, he is able to create a research-backed fiction book that is still enjoyable. In the bibliography, Michael Crichton states, This novel is entirely fictitious, but the underlying research programs are real. He then lists about 30 sources. This incorporation of nanotechnology into an interesting book really sparked an interest in me. I have done some research and seen that this amazing technology does have a quite promising future. The characters in prey are very well developed throughout the book. Because the book is in a first-person point of view, all of the characters are characterized by the main character, Jack. If Jack dislikes a particular person, the reader has a tendency to dislike that person as well. The characters are also very realistic, each having reasonable conflicts and a personality that remains fairly constant throughout the book. The story is largely affected by the characters in it. Often, a very large conflict in the book is an internal conflict experienced ...

Liberal Arts Education Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Liberal Arts Education - Essay Example The true meaning of positive aspect can only be understood when one knows what the negative aspect is. Even by the spiritual considerations, the march is from ‘darkness to light.’ Without darkness, light has no existence. However, Liberal Arts offer a genuine challenge to the formal graduation courses. Liberal Arts Education permits a student to do want one wants, to pursue his choices, and to achieve in life the desired goal. Success or failures do not matter much and the process of living with your own crafted discipline with which you challenge your ambitions is really important. The Liberal Arts teach us as to how to be who we really are. This education process is like self-realization in the vocation of one’s choice. Many courses taught in the universities are just the suffixes after the names of those students who make them. There exist numerous Universities that proudly own directionless and destination-less courses, which are of no use in real-life situations. For example, a MBA in business management will not be able to run a corner shop selling hamburgers successfully! With the exception of accounting, business school is an absolute fraud. Mark Edmundson argues, â€Å"Education has one salient enemy in present-day America, and that enemy is education—university education in particular. To almost everyone, university education is a means to an end. For students, that end is a good job. Students want the credentials that will help them get ahead.†(116) He will be a successful MBA if he is able to outsmart another MBA in the competin g organization. Means, whether they are fair or foul, are of no consequence in the race for profiteering! A divorce in marriage spoils personal lives, besides that of children. A divorce in career destroys the inner world of an individual, as one is required to do something, which one does not really like. Most students who go to the College

The glass menagerie Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 1

The glass menagerie - Research Paper Example This is because, in the rest of the characters, Williams finds an intersection between the themes he wishes to convey and the characters, though this point of intersection is highest in the person of Tom Wingfield. The Principal Characters of the Play Just as there are very many reasons to indicate that the main characters of the play are Amanda, Tom and Laura, so are there several reasons behind Williams' choice of them. Laura features in the play as the daughter of the Wingfields and Tom Wingfield's older sister as one of the principal characters. The aspect of Laura being a key figure in the play is underscored by the fact that it is her glass figurines that give the play its name and theme. The sufferings and setbacks that Laura has encountered culminate into her making a collection of glass figurines, as a way of creating a world of her own (Williams, Scene 1). Laura is introduced to suffering right from a nascent stage of life. A bout of childhood sickness strikes her, but beca use of the family's inability to afford timely quality medical services, she is left with a limp that eats into her personality and self-esteem. This low self-esteem causes her to become more isolated from the outside world. By disassociating her with the outside world, the same low self-esteem is definitely bound to eat into her exploits and potential. The author chooses the character of Laura Wingfield because she is the person who brings out explicitly, the consequences that accost the girl child, in light of absentee fatherhood. Secondly, she helps compound the theme of the difficulty in accepting reality the most. Reality has the weakest grasp on her, of all the Wingfields. She builds private world populated by glass animals. These objects, like Laura's inner life, are considerably fanciful but perilously delicate. In the person of Laura, the playwright finds the character in whom he can divulge on the psychological consequences of absentee parenthood and the sufferings it brin gs, on the child. Another character who features prominently in the play is Amanda Wingfield, the mother to Tom and Laura. A beautiful Southern lady who has been abandoned by her husband Mr. Wingfield, Amanda is Wingfield is trying to raise her children under dire financial situation. She longs for the comfort of her youth and for her children to have these comforts, but her inability to secure them turns her to hate them. The reason behind the playwright's choice of Amanda as a chief character of the play is that her experience and predicament set her to serve as the most express specimen of the psychological distress that single mothers bear. In the play, the disparity between her wishes for the comfort of her youth and their actual attainment of them is wide and persistent enough to aptly depict the harshness of life's reality and to inculcate bitterness upon Amanda. Thus, in the character of Amanda, the playwright is able to demonstrate the extent to which suffering can rob one of her personal aspirations and desires. Through the character of Amanda, Williams presents the complicated relationship that financially distressed and troubled single mothers have with reality. Amanda is partial to the values of the real world enough to maintain aspirations such as financial and social success. However, it is her firm attachment to these values that prevents her from coming to terms with life's

Rethinking Design Education for the 21st Century - Theoretical, Essay

Rethinking Design Education for the 21st Century - Theoretical, Methodological, and Ethical Discussion - Alain Findeli - Essay Example Findeli states that the subject of design was previously being viewed as applied esthetics but now the philosophy that leads design and knowledge related to is that design if a form of application of social sciences (7).3 Findeli argues that instead of seeing design as a particular element that is applied in nature, it should be considered as a form of involved science and this will help in ensuring that both the people who design things as well as those people for who the designs are being made are united together and considered as a part of the design problem and are not left out while the problem is being defined (11).4 He even states that there are ethical issues connected with designing and states that the main task of any designer should be to understand the purpose for which he/she is designing (13).5 He states that purpose for which a particular design is being made should guide all the elements of

Self Determination Theory And Career Aspirations Education Essay

Self Determination Theory And Career Aspirations Education Essay The purpose of this article is to explore the five components which relate self-determination theory to career aspirations. The first component is vocational education reform in Thailand, followed by how to undertake social cognitive career theory effectively, then self-determination theorys influence over career-decision making, and students career aspirations and career choices. Moreover life goals, intrinsic and extrinsic aspiration perspectives, which is the most significant focused issue to achieve students career aspirations for future research. Present research indicates that career decision-making self-efficacy is more strongly associated with career indecision than career decision-making autonomy. In order to verify carefully whether self-efficacy perceptions are strongly related to career indecision than autonomy. Self-determination theory will be discussed as a theory of work motivation to show its relevance to theories of organizational behavior. This paper concentrates o n the issues raised by Kasser and Ryan [13] as cited in Ryan and Deci [20] [4] which divided aspirations into two categories; intrinsic aspirations and extrinsic aspirations. It detailed the processes through which extrinsic motivation can become autonomous, and current research suggests that intrinsic motivation and autonomous extrinsic motivation are both related to performance, satisfaction, trust, and well-being in the workplace which also correlate to career aspirations. This is an important issue contributing to understanding vocational students career aspirations for the future. Key-Words: motivation, self-determination, Social cognitive career, career aspirations, aspiration index, life goals, vocational student 1 Introduction There are many different approaches to understanding human characteristics which are complex and extremely important [6]. After all, all people are individual. They may relate to experience in a study with different and unpredictable emotions and attitude [17], but there is evidence to illustrate how a few key basic theoretical principles help organize and increase our understanding of the motivational processes, determinants, and outcomes on a variety of life contexts [24]. In addition, motivation explains why people decide to do something, how hard they are going to pursue it and how long they are willing to sustain the activity. Motivation is the progression of instigating and sustaining goal-directed behavior [24]. This is cognitive explanation because it postulates that people set goals and employ cognitive process (e.g., planning and monitoring) and behavior (e.g., persistence and effort) to attain their goals. At the beginning of the twentieth century, it was believed by people such as Sigmund Freuds, that the concepts of motivation were basic human instinct and the drives to be unconscious motivation [6]. The middle of the twentieth century was dominated by conditioning theories related to behaviorist physiology, many of these research forming habits were based on experiments with animals rather than with humans. Moreover, the 1960s brought about further important changes. Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, they are famous behaviorism of that time, humanistic psychologies who identify details motivation into people lives. In this famous Hierarchy of Needs by Maslows 1943 were conceptualized five basic classes of needs, which were able, defined as: Physiological needs, safely, love, esteem and self-actualization [6]. However, the focus in the character in motivational psychology at present is characterized by cognitive approaches. The aim is on the individuals conscious attribute, thoughts, beliefs and interpretation of events and how their influence their behavior. It should also be noted that current motivation researches shown many alternative sub-theories that dominate motivational approaches. From overall picture these include Brophy, Ecceles and Wigfield which show how the human expect achievement and value outcome (Expectancy-values Theory). Locke and Latham gave directions about human action is caused by a sense of purpose. Thus, goals have to be set and pursued by choices. Covigton focused on perceived self worth that people are genially motivated to behave in ways that put them in a better light (Self-worth Theory). Atkinson and Raynor were expressed knowledge about motivational achievement that is determined by positive achievement influence about the success and negative achievement incentive to avoid self failure (Achievement Motivation Theory) [6]. The aim of this paper is to review literature relationship of Self-determination and career aspirations by discover the five components ; first is vocational education reform in Thailand, Then , How effective Social Cognitive Career Theory, follow by why self-determination theorys influence over career-decision making , and students career aspirations and career choices. Moreover life goals: intrinsic and extrinsic aspiration perspectives, which it the most significant focused issue to achieve students career aspirations for the future research. 2 Vocational education reform in Thailand In developing a countrys competitiveness, development of the middle-level manpower is one of the main issues to be considered. Thailand realizes the importance of this matter and emphasizes the need to increase vocational and training contains National education Bill which is going to be in force in the very near future [2]. Vocational education was systematically initiated in Thailand in 1898 in which the increment of interests began to rises. The vision of the Vocational Education Commission is to produce and develop vocational manpower at all levels for the general public [27]. The current strength situation of vocational education in Thailand has more than 800 vocational education institutions (public/ private). The public have quantity to 404 establishments all over country including the urban and suburban cities [27]. There are currently over 1 million students enrolled in the various vocational study pathways. Eight fields of study are undertaken as majors: trade and industry, agriculture, home economics, fisheries, business and tourism, arts and crafts, textiles and commerce [27]. The weakness of current situation concern the lack of unity in terms of policy guidelines. The country does not have a master plan for human resource development. This is reflected by employer which state the graduates have weaknesses in both theory and practice. The issues of curriculum and the process of training must be addressed [2]. Vocational education need to produce new technology and also generate new jobs. It has been very difficult to improve vocational education in Thailand particularly due to economic crisis in 1997. The state policy has not been sustained due to the frequent changes of government. It is expected Thailand will have shortest of human resources in main industry area for the next 5-10 years. There was a necessitate administrative system should promote unity in policy guidelines and variety in management such as networking between educational institutions [2],[1]. Hoffmann and Scott cited in Bhumirat [2] recommended according to Atagi [1] on challenges educators to continue to seek better curriculum and career opportunity programs to overcome the institutional that may interfere with students aspirations. 3 How effective Social Cognitive Career Theory Social Cognitive Career Theory (SCCT) is the integrative theory of academic and career-related interests, preference, performance, and satisfaction of students. SCCT were extends Albert Bandura universal Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) to academic and career behavior. Bandra and Brewer beliefs on people are more likely to act based on their beliefs [11]. According to Schunk [22] statement that SCT is a difference perspective on motivation that relevant to learning. Following this line investigation has identified many cognitive processes encourage students, as like goals, social comparison, and self-efficacy. The contributions of SCCT were based on 25 years of research and applied experiences by Lent [14]. This can be view as conceptual professional improvement intervention. Lent, Brown, Hackett [15] provided frame of SCCT that was inclusive of academic interest, preference, and performance be able to examine how career and academic interests mature, how career choices are developed and how these choices are turned into action. The perspective on SCCT is accomplished reflection on three primary tenets: self efficacy, outcome expectations, and goals. Self-efficacy refers to the beliefs of people have about their ability to successfully complete the steps required for a given task [9]. These beliefs regularly changed base on interactions with other people, environment, and ones own behavior. Lent expressed the relationship between the individual self-efficacy improvement on or after personal performance, learning by example, social interactions and how they feel in situation. Outcome expectations are beliefs related to the consequences of performing a specific behavior. Extrinsic reinforcement, self-directed consequences and basic task understanding can be tied to outcome expectations. These expectations are often influenced by self-efficacy, especially when outcomes are based on the quality of a persons performance [15]. Finally, goal is the key role in SCT has that refers to success and outcome of actions. Goals give people tunnel vision to focus on demands of the tasks and to persist at the task orientate [23]. A goal is defined as the decision to begin a particular activity or future plan [9]. Lent, et al. [16] studied on race and gender may limit or expand exposure to various careers, or may persuade how a person inspection the possibility of achievement related to particular interest. Bias and role socialization are also relevant to this concern. They recommended future research on career and academic interest for science and engineering majors. 4 Self-determination theory influence Career-decision making The reflections on self-determination (SDT) from over the past 25 years were recommended to future research that is reasonably bright [24]. It noticeably presented the great heuristic power from the three basic theoretical principle give a hand to understand motivational progression, determinates and outcome in variety of life context. SDT is an approach to human motivation that highlights importance of three elementary; psychological needs autonomy, competence, and relatedness [20]. The interested functional support to this study in terms of supporting peoples psychological needs on three basic areas must be satisfied in order to experience a sense of well-being. White and de-Charms [20] proposed that the competence and autonomy needs are the basis for intrinsic motivations and performance. Notice, this is a relationship between peoples basic needs and their motivations. In term of autonomy originate that, autonomy offered people extrinsic rewards for behavior that is intrinsically motivated this may undermined the intrinsic motivation as they grow less interested in it. Initially intrinsically motivated behavior becomes controlled by external rewards, which undermines their autonomy [25], [5]. Further research by found other external factors like deadlines, which restrict and control, also decrease intrinsic motivation. Situations that give autonomy as opposed to taking it away also have a similar link to motivation. Studies looking at choice have found that increasing a participants options and choices increases their intrinsic motivation to said activities [24]. The competence commented it is giving people positive feedback on a task increases peoples intrinsic motivation to do it, meaning that this was because the positive feedback was fulfilling peoples need for competence [24, 5]. Negative feedback has the opposite effect decreasing intrinsic motivation by taking away from peoples need for competence. The competence implies that individuals seek to be effective in their communications with the environment. According to SDT, perceptions of competence will not enhance optimal functioning unless accompanied by a sense of autonomy. The need for autonomy implies that individuals strive to experience choice in the initiation, maintenance and regulation of human behavior. In particular, the terms perceived competence and perceived autonomy refer to the fulfillment of these psychological needs [11]. Future more, the need for relatedness supports intrinsic motivation in a less key way. In the study for career aspiration found that relatedness (i.e.,need to have positive and significant relationships) is weakly related to career indecision [11]. Gange and Deci [8] studied about cognitive evaluation theory, shown effects of extrinsic motivators on intrinsic motivation, received some initial attention in the organizational literature. Gange and Deci initiate that differentiating extrinsic motivation into types that differ in their degree of autonomy lead to SDT, which has received widespread attention in the education, health care, and sport domains. They were describing SDT as a theory of work motivation and illustrate its significance to theories of organizational behavior. 5 Students career aspirations and career choices Follow from our inquiry; what is your career aspiration? Is that relate to your career choices or discipline that you studying now? Brought us to studied prior research about career aspirations and career choices. Guay, et al. [11] found a negative relation between self-efficacy in career decision making and career indecision. More specifically, students who have strong self-efficacy expectations about their career choice process have. Autonomy and control orientations were positively related to self-exploration and beliefs in relation to the instrumentality of career decision-making exploration. The present results indicate that career decision-making self-efficacy is more strongly associated with career indecision than career decision-making autonomy. More research need to be in order to verify more rigorously whether self-efficacy perceptions are more strongly related to career indecision than autonomy. York [28] studied on gender differences in career decision making. Research had found that parents and peers behaviors strongly influence career decision making. The promotion of perceptions of self-efficacy and autonomy can reduce career indecision. And autonomy supportive ways may help students develop their autonomy and self-efficacy to support their career decision making. The less autonomy supportive and the more controlling the parents and peers, the less positive are students perceptions of self-efficacy and autonomy toward career decision-making activities. In turn, the less positive students perceptions are, the higher their levels of career indecision. Thus, they focused on gender differences that women perceived their parents and peers as more autonomy supportive and less controlling than did men. In addition, women perceived greater autonomy and self-efficacy but less career indecision than did men. Whiston as cited in Guay, et al. [11] studied shown that only womens career indecisiveness was negatively correlated to the quantity of control as well as organization within the family (i.e., this relation was no significant for men) and that both womens and mens career decision-making self-efficacy is positively related to the degree to which families encourage and support independence and participation in a variety of activities. According to research on gender differences has typically shown that women present higher levels of autonomy than do men. However, the research does not usually report gender differences on career decision-making self-efficacy and career indecision. Many of studied have linked career indecision to interpersonal and intrapersonal processes without paying attention to how interpersonal and intrapersonal factors are related to career indecision. 6 Life goals: intrinsic and extrinsic aspiration perspectives What are your life goals? This is the question refer to your own aspirations? When we talk about goals, we can talk about short term goal such as having good grade in this subject, but long term goals, future goals, life goals or aspirations are things drive as a powerful process in thinking their ideal future. According to Elliot and Dweck [7] studied shown that after people have their own aspirations they will motivate them self to turn this vision of the future into reality. As our focusing significant issue by Kasser, Ryan were divided aspirations into two categories; intrinsic aspirations and extrinsic aspirations. The researched propose an instrument to measure people life goals level, called the Aspiration Index [4],[5]. Aspiration Index refers to peoples life goals are intrinsic aspirations contain life goals like relationship generatively and personal development (viz. meaningful relationships, personal growth, and community contributions) versus extrinsic aspirations (viz. wealth, fame, and image). The Aspiration index participants rate allow importance to themselves of each aspiration, their beliefs about the likelihood of attaining each, and the degree to which they have already attained each [4]. Prior research by Deci and Ryan on this aspirations index has revealed found in a Long study in period of time shown that well-being was enhanced by attainment of intrinsic goals, whereas success at extrinsic goals provided little benefit. Initial evidence suggests that controlling, uninvolved parenting is associated with the development of strong relative extrinsic aspiration, whereas autonomy-supportive, involved parenting is associated with the development of stronger intrinsic aspirations. Ryan, Huta, Deci [21] pointed out on eudaimonic belief (human happiness) in well-being studies. The model of eudaimonia that is based in self-determination theory were expressed that eudaimonic is cored on what it means to live a good life, a life representing human individual excellence. On the other hand, at the between-person level, it was people who engaged in numerous eudaimonic movements or have eudaimonic goals (happiness life goals) who consistently had high life satisfaction and a high level of positive influence. 7 Conclusions Ryan, Sheldon, Kasser, and Deci [5] argued that the pursuit and attainment of some life goals may provide greater satisfaction of the basic psychological needs than the pursuit and attainment of others, and that those providing greater satisfaction would be associated with greater well-being. Kasser Ryan [5] recommended that, because of these expected links to basic need satisfaction, pursuit and attainment of intrinsic aspirations would be more strongly associated with well-being than would pursuit and attainment of extrinsic aspirations. Furthermore, self-determination theory has detailed the processes through which extrinsic motivation can turn out to be autonomous, and research suggests that intrinsic motivation (based in interest) and autonomous extrinsic motivation (based in importance) are both related to performance, satisfaction, trust, and well-being in the workplace which it related to career aspirations [8]. We notice that there are little research reported so far on the common motivational processes that connect family aspirations, cultural ideals, or personal goals in a distant future with classroom motivation and achievement in differences discipline are missing mostly unexplained. Studied outlined a research agenda that will be significant for supporting the use of SDT as a theory of work motivation and career aspirations.

Our World In Medicine :: essays research papers

Our World In Medicine One of the most important factors about people's lives is the information of, the use of, and the growing knowledge of medicine. Medicine is a science that nations all over the world use. It is a science because it is based on knowledge gained through careful study and experimentation. Medicine is also an art form because it depends on how skillfully doctors and other medical workers apply their knowledge when dealing with patients.1 Medicine is one of the most respected professions. The two important goals of medicine are to save lives and to relieve suffering, which is why it is so respected. But the medical field is not open to anyone who wants to help. It takes many long years of college and medical school to get even a license to work with medicine.2 While some doctors are more important than others, almost all of them are on call twenty - four hour a day, seven days a week. Because they have to apply themselves to their job at all times, they are payed at very good wages. Human beings have been suffering from disease since they first appeared on the earth about two and one -half million years ago. Throughout most of this time, they knew little about how the human body works or what causes disease. But medicine has gone through many stages throughout history. In prehistoric times, people believed that angry gods or evil spirits caused disease. To cure the sick, the gods had to be pacified or the evil spirits driven from the body. In time, this task became the job of the first "physicians".3 The first - known surgical treatment was an operation called trephining. Trephining involved use of a stone instrument to cut a hole in a patient's skull. Scientists have found fossils of such skulls that date back as far as 10,000 years. Prehistoric people probably also discovered that many plants can be used as drugs. For example, the use of willow bark to relieve pain probably dates back thousands of years.4 Today, scientists know that willow bark contains the important ingredients that is included in making aspirin. In the Middle East, the Egyptians began making important medical progress. Around 2500 B.C., Egyptian physicians began to specialize. Some physicians treated only diseases of the eyes or teeth. Others specialized in internal diseases. Egyptian surgeons produced a textbook that told how to treat dislocated or fractured bones and as well as tumors, ulcers, and wounds.5 The civilization of ancient Greece was at its peak during the 400's B.C. Throughout this period, sick people flocked to temples dedicated to the Greek

Consumer Behavior Essay

This section describes the roles of product appearance in the process of consumer evaluation and choice. For this aim, literature in the fields of product development, product design, consumer behavior, marketing, and human factors has been searched. The literature shows that the visual appearance of a product can influence consumer product evaluations and choice in several ways. Several authors considered the role of product or package appearance in consumer product evaluation or choice (Bloch, 1995; Garber, 1995; Garber et al. , 2000; Veryzer, 1993; Veryzer, 1995). However, they did not discuss explicitly the different ways in which appearance influences consumer choice and their respective implications for product design. In addition to these more recent contributions to the literature, the functions of a product in consumer–product interaction are described in earlier industrial design literature (Lo? bach, 1976; Pilditch, 1976; Schu? rer, 1971). Several of these functions concern product appearance. There are differences between authors in the number of roles (i. e. , functions) of product appearance they distinguish and the terms they use. For example, communication of ease of use was mentioned by Bloch (1995) and was described as part of the aesthetic function by Lo? bach (1976), while Veryzer (1995) called it the communicative function of a product appearance. If all the roles mentioned in the literature are considered as a whole, the following six roles of product appearance for consumers can be distinguished: (1) communication of aesthetic, (2) symbolic, (3) functional, and (4) ergonomic product information; (5) attention drawing; and (6) categorization. A description of these six roles and their implications for product design follows. Product Appearance and Aesthetic Product Value The aesthetic value of a product pertains to the pleasure derived from seeing the product, without consideration of utility (Holbrook, 1980). A consumer can value the ‘‘look’’ of a product purely for its own sake, as looking at something beautiful is rewarding in itself. When product alternatives are similar in functioning and price, consumers will prefer the one that appeals the most to them aesthetically (see, for example, Figure 1). Aesthetic responses are primarily emotional or feeling responses, and as such they are very personal (Bamossy et al. , 1983). Several researchers have tried to determine properties of products that are related to aesthetic appreciation. Innate preferences are proposed for visual organization principles, such as unity (i. e. , congruence in elements), proportion (e. g. , ‘‘the Golden Section’’), and symmetry (Hekkert, 1995; Muller, 2001; Veryzer, 1993; Veryzer and Hutchinson, 1998), and an inverted U-shaped relation is proposed between aestheticpreference and complexity (Berlyne, 1971). Another property influencing aesthetic judgments is color. The desirability of a color will change according to the object to which it is applied (e. g. , a car or a table) and with the style of the object (e. g. , modern or Georgian) (Whitfield and Wiltshire, 1983). In addition to (innate) preferences for certain properties of stimuli, prototypicality is found to influence the aesthetic response. Proto typicality is the degree to which something is representative of a category (see also the section about categorization). In several studies, evidence is found for a positive influence of visual prototypicality on aesthetic preference (Hekkert, 1995; Veryzer and Hutchinson, 1998; Whitfield and Slatter, 1979). According to Hekkert et al. (2003), products with an optimal combination of prototypicality and novelty are preferred aesthetically. As well as the product-related characteristics previously mentioned, there are cultural, social, and personal influences on design taste. For example, color preferences differ between cultures and in time (Whitfield and Wiltshire, 1983). In addition, personal factors, such as design acumen, prior experience, and personality influence the design taste of consumers (Bloch, 1995). The influence of an aesthetic judgment on product preference can be moderated by the perceived aesthetic fit of the product with other products the consumer owns, or his or her home interior (Bloch, 1995). Product Appearance and Symbolic Product Value Consumer goods carry and communicate symbolic meaning (McCracken, 1986). Symbolic value even can be the key determinant for product selection (Hirschman and Holbrook, 1982) and can account for the selection of products that clearly are inferior in their tangible characteristics (Levy, 1959). An example of the latter is Philippe Starck’s Juicy Salif lemon squeezer (Lloyd and Snelders, 2003). The choice for a specific product or brand may convey the kind of person someone is or wants to be; consumers use products to express their (ideal) self-image to themselves and to others (Belk, 1988; Landon, 1974; Sirgy, 1982; Solomon, 1983). Symbolic meaning can be attached to a product or brand on the basis of, among other things, advertising (McCracken, 1986), country of origin, or the kind of people using it (Sirgy, 1982). But the productitself also can communicate symbolic value in a more direct way, namely by its appearance. A product’s appearance communicates messages (Murdoch and Flurscheim, 1983), as it may look cheerful, boring, friendly, expensive, rude, or childish (see, for example, Figure 2). In addition, a certain style of appearance may evoke associations with a certain time or place (e. g. , the Fifties). Furthermore, the product or package appearance can reinforce the image of a brand, as the identity of a brand is expressed visually in the appearance of products (Schmitt and Simonson, 1997). Consumers may attach the meaning of a brand to elements of the physical appearance of products. In this way, a brand image may transfer to different kinds of products (see the section about categorization). Many companies therefore make consistent use of certain design elements, such as a color combination, a distinctive form element, or style. For example, car manufacturers often try to keep different car models recognizable as belonging to the same brand. The distinctive radiator grill of BMW automobiles is an example of a recognizable design element. The linking of brand meaning to elements of the product appearance will be easier when the associations these elements engender by themselves (e. g. , because they are innate or are determined by culture) correspond to the desired brand image. For example, use of bright colors and a large size, which is associated with aggression (Murdoch and Flurscheim, 1983), will make it easier to position a car brand as aggressive. Although there are large individual and time-specific differences in the experience of color and form, there are certain associations that seem to be relatively constant. Overviews of the influence of form and color on consumer perception of symbolic value (but also ergonomic and aesthetic value) can be found in Muller (2001), Murdoch and Flurscheim (1983), Schmitt and Simonson (1997), and Whitfield and Wiltshire (1983). For example, angular forms are associated with dynamism and masculinity, while roundness evokes softness and femininity (Schmitt and Simonson, 1997). Culture is an important determinant of the interpretations that consumers give and the associations they have with certain factors of a product’s appearance. For example, color associations vary from culture to culture (Whitfield and Wiltshire, 1983). In America and Europe, the color white stands for purity, and brides traditionally dress in white; in Japan itis a color of mourning. Furthermore, meaning is context dependent. The impression that colors give may change completely by combining certain colors (Muller, 2001). Also, the meaning of forms and colors may change in time, as meanings are continuously transformed by movements in art, fashion, etcetera (Muller, 2001). There is some debate about whether symbolic interpretation is part of the aesthetic experience. In most literature, aesthetic value is mentioned as botha hedonic impression and a result of interpretation and representation (Schmitt and Simonson, 1997; Vihma, 1995). It is acknowledged in this article that whether a product is conceived of as beautiful is affected by what it represents (Vihma, 1995). The same style can be considered ‘‘good taste’’ at one point in time, while being considered ‘‘bad taste’’ 10 years later, because the connotations associated with it or the interpretations given to it have changed. For example, orange was a modern color for clothes, furniture, and plastic products in the Seventies, generally was perceived as old-fashioned and ugly in the Eighties, and became used in products and clothing again in the Nineties. However, the view in this article is that aesthetic and symbolic value should be distinguished, as they may have opposite influences on preference. For example, someone who likes a colorful design may not buy it because it looks ‘‘too childish. ’’ Product Appearance and Functional Product Value

Case Analysis of Sunflower Incorporated Essays

Case Analysis of Sunflower Incorporated Essays Case Analysis of Sunflower Incorporated Paper Case Analysis of Sunflower Incorporated Paper Sunflower Case Is a large distribution company that purchases and distributes salty snack foods and liquors throughout the united States and Canada. The company employs over 5,000 employees and has gross sales of over $700 million. The head office has encouraged each of its regions to operate separately in order to accommodate different tastes and preferences. When studied, it was determined that the profits across the regions varied widely and the decision was made that the process needed to be standardized in order to Increase profits, capture market share ND ensure quality remained at an acceptable level so not to tarnish the Image of Sunflower. This decision created the need to hire Agnes Lebanese as Director of Pricing and Purchasing to implement the planned change throughout the organization. The Four-step General Model of Planned Change was not properly followed in the proposed changes in the organization although portions of it were used. Mr.. Statesman, the President of Sunflower, did engage In entering and contracting when he hired Agnes Lebanese as Director of Pricing and Purchasing to Implement the planned change throughout the organization. Statesman felt that such standardization was necessary in order to avoid market loss and a decrease in quality-control due to the practice being employed in some regions to purchase lower-quality items including seconds in order to boost the profit margins. However, Statesman failed to carry out the next step In entering and contracting and while he defined the problem, he did not establish a collaborative environment and instead simply fired off memos and notified parties Involved through a company newsletter. In addition, Statesman as well as Mr.. Mobile, whom Lebanese reported to, gave Lebanese great latitude and encouraged her to establish whatever rules were necessary to carry out the changes. In this environment, neither Statesman nor Mobile established specific responsibilities that Lebanese was to carry out other than the goal of standardization. They failed to become Involved In the strategy set up by Lebanese. Lebanese was encouraged to gather as much Information from each region as possible so that she could understand the problems facing the organization, and she appeared to do so but on a very rushed timeline. Diagnosing, the second step in the Four-step General Model of Planned Change, was tempted by Lebanese as she was encouraged to gather as much information from each region as possible so that she could understand the problems facing the organization. Unfortunately, this task took place on such a rushed timeline that there was no way for Lebanese to take all of the factors Into account for each region. The change program that Lebanese wanted to implement may have been a step in the right direction toward standardization, but it did not accurately take into account several of the issues that the organization was also concerned about including low quality products. Lebanese only focused on increasing the profit margins. After only three weeks on the Job, Lebanese decided to institute a policy that pricing and purchasing echelons Decode standardize Ana to Deign tons step Tanat seen De notified of any change in local prices that exceeded a threshold of 3% or any purchases exceeding $5,000. Mobile agreed to the new policy and worked with Lebanese to submit a formal policy to the president and board of directors who ultimately approved the plan. One of Lebanese critical errors in the model of change was her decision to implement the new procedures right away which meant hey would be go into effect prior to the peak holiday season for Sunflower. In diagnosing what needed to happen, Lebanese should have realized that it would be impossible for the regions to undergo such standardization during a time when decisions and orders needed to be filled rapidly and without interruption. Also, the idea that such a low threshold of change required centralized approval was somewhat unrealistic without looking further into what is a reasonable amount of change expected in local prices. With low quality items becoming an issue, Lebanese addressed price only and did not appear to diagnose how to correct quality control. Statesman and Mobile should have provided more feedback and assisted Lebanese with the data as well as the implications of change within the organization in order to ensure she was in fact addressing the issues that needed to be corrected. The third step which is planning and implementing change also seemed to occur too quickly to be effective. Lebanese did not take the time to design interventions so that she would be able to achieve the organizations vision or goal of standardization. The goals were not clearly set so it would have been impossible to determine whether or not they have been reached. In addition, Lebanese needed to properly consider the culture and power distributions as well as skills and abilities of the change agents in place to properly put the change in motion during the peak season for the organization. The very nature of each region requiring separate items and contracts to cater to specific markets made the idea of centralizing all decisions difficult even under the best of change implementation. However, the idea to communicate the change through email while a good first step, needed follow up and direct communication planned and discussed with the change agents at each region. Mobile should not have signed off on Lebanese plan to implement such fundamental changes with the only communication being by email. In addition, he should have realized that execution of such an implementation could never take place on such a tight timeline. Properly planning and explaining the implementation process is a critical step in successful execution of any planned change within an organization and glossing over this step with nothing but an email left the entire plan ineffective. If the procedures proposed by Lebanese were so critical that they could not wait to be implemented until after the peak season, Lebanese should have ruefully planned out an implementation process that explained not only the new policies and procedures but encouraged buy in from each of the regions. Lebanese overlooked the importance of getting the region managers to buy in on the new process so that they would not only follow the procedures but also encourage their employees to do the same. Buy-in needs to be established from the top down in order to gain effective change. While the executives agreed with the email distributed by Lebanese, none of them actually followed the new guidelines and Lebanese did not receive any notices from the regions about local prices increasing. I en Tall step In ten process Is evaluating Ana Institutionalizing change tonguing the organization. Clearly, upon evaluation the change program was unsuccessful due to poor planning, implementation and execution. The changes were not continued and the organization continued with usual procedures followed for the particular time of year. Clearly, the plan needed to be modified and specific goals should have been set and agreed upon by not only upper management but by each region. Change is usually difficult but without proper planning and getting the right people on board even the best ideas can be difficult to execute. The strategy employed by Sunflower Incorporated management to plan and implement change was not successful because the change program itself was inadequate. The decision to hire Lebanese to oversee and manage the change program was good as clearly Sunflower needed to increase profits while standardizing procedures. Unfortunately, Lebanese was not given the proper support or direction to effectively manage the change program, and even when Mobile disagreed with Lebanese approach, he did not intervene and insist on a different plan of implementation. Lebanese came up short in her diagnosis of the issues at Sunflower, and her plan of implementation and execution was severely lacking. Communicating with regions through no other form than email is not going to develop the kind of relationship necessary to get buy-in from the regions to follow the newly established policies and procedures. In addition, there should have been one-on-one training explaining exactly what was expected of each region as well as how the change would help the organization to thrive and be successful going forward. Lebanese needed to develop relationships with key people to help communicate the message within the regions so everyone knew exactly how to implement the new policies. If travel was too expensive or time consuming, Lebanese could have provided webbing training where participants could ask questions and she could gain a better sense of the direction of the program. There also needed to be evaluation and feedback so that the change program could be properly measured and adjusted for optimum effectiveness. If I had been in Lebanese position, I would have met with key leaders at each region to discuss each step of the change management program and would have made sure those leaders had bought in to the new policies and procedures being proposed. Such a large change should never have been implemented in such a short time during peak season, and I would have spent those three months planning and garnering support for the program. I also would have developed talking points to help the regions get their employees on board so that they understand the change and how it could help prosper the organization as well as the regions individually. In addition, the quality control issue needed to be properly addressed and a strategy to ensure that all products being sold by Sunflower in fact met the standards and inferior ingredients ere not being used in order to boost profits. More research and planning needed to go into the change program in order for it to be successful. Once the program had been properly diagnosed and planned, careful and monitored implementation should have been executed and Lebanese should have remained in consistent contact with the leaders involved in the changes to the policies and procedures. Clear guidelines should have been set and updated as the change program was evaluated and institutionalized. Change is seldom easy but it becomes even more Doolittle wilt not proper planning Ana communication.

You have been asked to create a database to handle various account combinations of customers in a bank of your choice Essays

You have been asked to create a database to handle various account combinations of customers in a bank of your choice Essays You have been asked to create a database to handle various account combinations of customers in a bank of your choice Essay You have been asked to create a database to handle various account combinations of customers in a bank of your choice Essay You have been asked to create a database to handle various account combinations of customers in a bank of your choice. Your database must consist of at leas three tables (maximum of 7) to store information about customers, accounts, investments, mortgages, etc. The bank offers a range of accounts, such a current, student high rate deposit, etc and a range of investment services such as Individual Savings Account (ISA) or a portfolio holding shares. A customer may have more than one account and at the same time may also hold an investment or a fixed rate mortgage (or both). Your working database will allow users to: * set up new accounts * enter, view, and edit data in entry forms * initiate queries to search for specific information * and generate a monthly overall financial statement for each customer USER SPECIFICATION PURPOSE A model is a representation of something in the real world. We use models in all walks of life because they represent a simplified view of the world, highlighting the part which interests us. A good model should: Aid communication A model that is difficult to read or understand is of no use. Projects of various sizes all depend upon communication exchanging ideas, discussing proposals, understanding requirements. A model should aid all ideas. There is no use communicating a complex model as it will be difficult to understand, to verify and to maintain. A test which can be applied to any model is to give someone unconnected with the system and ask them what the model represents. If they describe the system accurately then a good model has been produced. Fits its purpose A good model should have an explicit purpose that everyone uses it recognises. Project models are produced at many different stages of a project life cycle for various purposes. This includes: * physical models showing the system as it is currently exists, with implementation details who does what and where * logical models showing the essence of the system what the system actually does, without any implementation details * models used during the systems analysis stage of the project * models used during the design stages of a project * models giving a general overview of a system, putting all the relevant parts of the problem into perspective * highly detailed models for one small part of a system * models that show different perspectives of a system, for example dynamic, functional or static. Capture the essentials Many models consist of documentation for businesses, such as invoices, orders, receipts. If it only consisted of documents, what would happen if the business changes? Most businesses today are dynamic meaning that they have to respond to increasing competition and to he changes in the environment around them. It is therefore necessary to capture the essence of the business and model around those core concepts to be able to handle changes properly. Be consistent with other models in the system Different models of the same system can be integrated or cross checked against each other for consistency. This is to say that if a set of models represent the same thing then it should be possible to put them altogether without introducing inconsistencies. Reduce complexity To deal with systems not too complex to understand directly by breaking them up into more manageable parts and separating out a small number of important things to deal with at a time. Be able to be drawn on ordinary paper Models are a communication aid. If we present users with a model that fills the back of a roll of wallpaper then no matter how accurately it may represent the system under investigation it is unlikely that it will communicate the main point to users. Models produced on a standard A4 sheet of paper are more likely o represent manageable chunks or a system that users can comprehend, comment on file, post to other users and so on. Be capable of manipulation by computer Drawing models is essentially an iterative process a model is produced, shown to the users then redrawn as many times as is necessary until the users are happy with it. Using a model that can be manipulated by computer cuts out the drudgery of redrafting, and ensures that models can be produced and amended speedily and without introducing errors. USER SPECIFICATION AND USER SKILLS In order to identify the type of working model that the user would want I designed a questionnaire. This was distributed to 10 employees of who all worked for Barclays and were used to an already existing system put into the banks. The purpose of the questionnaire was to identify what the user wants. As part of my GNVQ Advanced IT project I have to design a database for a bank. I would be very grateful if you could spare a few minutes to fill it in. Please tick as applicable. 1) When filling in information would you like the font to be a large or small size? -Large -Small 2) Would it be easier if drop down lists were made available to reduce time taking operations? -Yes -No 3) On average how long do you spend with a customer? -5 to 10 minutes -11 to 20 minutes -21 to 30 minutes -1 hour -longer 4) Would it not be easier if the customer could fill out a form first and then you could input the information into the computer? -Yes -No 5) How many ranges of accounts do you offer from the following? -Current account -ISA -Insurance -Savings and investments -Mortgages and home -Students and graduates 6) Would it be easier if information was copied from table to table or was identified in different sections using the customer ID? -Yes -No 7) Does adding colour make the database more interesting? -Yes -No 8) Would it be a good idea if the database was made more realistic using 3D effects and interesting graphics and writing? -Yes -No 9) Is it a good or bad idea if certain boxes were eliminated with a certain validation rules. E.g. Tel no. can only be a number up to 11 digits. -Good -Bad 9) Would it be suitable for certain formulas to imply be themselves such as date? -Yes -No Thank you. USER SPECIFICATION AND USER SKILLS Below you are able to view the results of this questionnaire based upon 10 people: In order to identify the type of working model that the user would want I designed a questionnaire. This was distributed to 10 employees of who all worked for Barclays and were used to an already existing system put into the banks. The purpose of the questionnaire was to identify what the user wants. As part of my GNVQ Advanced IT project I have to design a database for a bank. I would be very grateful if you could spare a few minutes to fill it in. Please tick as applicable. 1) When filling in information would you like the font to be a large or small size? -Large 8 -Small 2 2) Would it be easier if drop down lists were made available to reduce time taking operations? -Yes 9 -No 1 3) On average how long do you spend with a customer? -5 to 10 minutes 2 -11 to 20 minutes 1 -21 to 30 minutes 7 -1 hour 0 -longer 0 4) Would it not be easier if the customer could fill out a form first and then you could input the information into the computer? -Yes 2 -No 8 5) How many ranges of accounts do you offer from the following? -Current account 10 -ISA 10 -Insurance 10 -Savings and investments 10 -Mortgages and home 10 -Students and graduates 6) Would it be easier if information was copied from table to table or was identified in different sections using the customer ID? -Yes 10 -No 0 7) Does adding colour make the database more interesting? -Yes 10 -No 0 8) Would it be a good idea if the database was made more realistic using 3D effects and interesting graphics and writing? -Yes 5 -No 5 9) Is it a good or bad idea if certain boxes were eliminated with a certain validation rules? E.g. Tel no. can only be a number up to 11 digits. -Good 10 -Bad 0 9) Would it be suitable for certain formulas to imply be themselves such as date? -Yes 10 -No 0 Thank you. Final Specification Carrying out the questionnaire has enabled me to come up with the following specification according to the results that were achieved. 1) The model should be simple and user friendly and be able to communicate well. It should be able to: -exchange ideas -discuss proposals -understand requirements 2) It should capture the essentials so if the business does face changes the way it operates is not affected due to the pressures of ever growing competition. 3) Reduce complexity of the model and break it down into manageable chunks. 4) To be able to fit the basic concept or model onto one A4 sheet. 5) Ensure models can be produced and amended speedily and without introducing errors according to the user. 6) Ensure the font is of a reasonable size to ensure less constraint on the eyes of the user. A font size of 12 should be a good idea. 7) Drop down lists should be made available to ensure less time is taken. 8) The whole database should be able to be filled in between 21 to 30 minutes. 9) A minimum of 5 tables should be implemented which will include information on customers, accounts, investments and insurances. 10) Information should be made available in different tables, which will be identified by the customer ID. 11) Colour should be implemented to make the database more interesting and easier to identify different sectors. 12) Certain boxes/cells should contain validation rules as it will mean that errors are minimised. 13) Certain formulas should also be implied as it will mean that it is for less time consuming. NORMALISTATION THE STEPS INVOLVED IN ORMALISTAION The steps involved are the creation of an un-normalised form (UNF) followed by first (FNF or 1NF), second (SNF or 2NF) and third normal forms (TNF or 3NF). UNF Collect all attributes and select a key for the un-normalised relation. The key could be any item but select a reasonable key that is, unique for the particular data source, involving the smallest combination of items possible and not textual. 1NF Remove all repeating groups of attributes (those with several values determined by a single value of the key) to form a new relation. The key to this new relation will be the key of the UNF (which should be taken with the removed group of attributes) plus any further attributes belonging to the removed group which are necessary to uniquely each row. 2NF Remove attributes determined by part of a compound or composite key to form a new relation. The determining attributes become the key of the new relation. A relation is in 2NF if it is 1NF and every non-primary key attribute is fully functionally dependent on the primary key. 3NF Remove attributes determined by non-key attributes to form a new relation. The determining attributes become the key of the new relation. Mark foreign keys. Remember that determinacy exists when the value of the determined attribute is totally dependent on the value of the determining attributes. Test for TNF Given a value for the key, is there only one possible value for each attribute in the relation? Examine every non-key attribute and question its relationship with every other non-key attribute. Ask the question, If I know the value for attribute A, is there only one value for attribute B? If the answer is Yes, then attribute B is determined by attribute A (that is, is functionally dependent on A). Since A is a non-key attribute, attributes A and B must be removed to a separate relation, leaving A behind as a foreign key and using it as the primary key of the new relation. When this process is finished you should be able to examine each relation and answer Yes to the following question: Is each attribute dependent on the key, the whole key and nothing but the key? NORMALISATION TABLE UNF 1NF 2NF 3NF Customer ID Customer ID Customer ID Customer ID Title *Sort code *Sort code *Sort code Customer name Title Title Title Customer address Customer name Customer name Customer name Telephone number Customer address Customer address Customer address Sex Telephone number Telephone number Telephone number Date of birth Sex Sex Sex Marital status Date of birth Date of birth Date of birth Sort code Marital status Marital status Marital status Branch name Branch address Sort code Sort code Sort code Current account number Branch name Branch name Branch name Date of CA transaction Branch address Branch address Branch address CA Start balance CA Money out Customer ID Customer ID Customer ID CA Money in Current account number Current account number Current account number CA Overdraft limit Date of CA transaction Date of CA transaction Date of CA transaction CA Description CA Start balance CA Start balance CA Start balance Savings account number CA Money out CA Money out CA Money out Date of SA transaction CA Money in CA Money in CA Money in SA Start balance CA Overdraft limit CA Overdraft limit CA Overdraft limit Date of SA transaction CA Description CA Description CA Description SA Money out Savings account number SA Money in Date of SA transaction Customer ID Customer ID SA Overdraft limit SA Start balance Savings account number Savings account number SA Description Date of SA transaction Date of SA transaction Date of SA transaction Interest earned tax year ending 2002 (before tax) SA Money out SA Start balance SA Start balance Lower rate tax deducted SA Money in Date of SA transaction Date of SA transaction Mortgage account number SA Overdraft limit SA Money out SA Money out Date of MA transaction SA Description SA Money in SA Money in MA Balance bought forward Interest earned tax year ending 2002 (before tax) SA Overdraft limit SA Overdraft limit MA Description Lower rate tax deducted SA Description SA Description Debit Mortgage account number Interest earned tax year ending 2002 (before tax) Interest earned tax year ending 2002 (before tax) Credit Date of MA transaction Lower rate tax deducted Lower rate tax deducted MA Balance bought forward Mortgage account number MA Description Date of MA transaction Customer ID Debit MA Balance bought forward Mortgage account number Credit MA Description Date of MA transaction Debit MA Balance bought forward Credit MA Description Debit Credit EXPLAINING THE DATA DICTIONARY Different databases vendors supply different dictionary products. The following is a general review of the desirable components and the tasks it ought to be capable of. A data dictionary is a composite of: Data dictionary contains definitions of records; data; items; relations, etc. The user can find the characteristics of the data stored in the database. Data directory or catalogue Contains information about where data is stored. Thus, it will contain the internal schemes and indexes maintained by the DBMS (such as CustNo_Index and CustomerName_Index). Also, in a distributed database, the data directory keeps track of which data is stored at which nod. The data directory is used by the data management software rather than by users. Data stored by the data dictionary is known as meta data which is data about data. A data dictionary may hold only information about the database implementation or may also hold details of conceptual model ad process or functional model. The four partition model of a data dictionary can be used to describe the features that a fully implemented data dictionary may contain. The line between the boxes represents the relationship between data structures and the programs which use them, etc. This information is useful when amending data structures, for example so that the programs affected can be traced and the data model updated as necessary to correspond to the new data structures. Using the data dictionary in systems development As an example of how the data dictionary may be used, the following points illustrate how it may be used in systems development: * Information provided by the data dictionary helps to identify redundant data and help developers and users to understand and agree what data means. * Information can be used to help with conceptual data modelling and also to generate documentation. * Prototyping may be used to develop a database system it is a quick, experimental approach which requires a readily available store of data and a readily available description of that data together with some computer based tools. Other data dictionary users There are several things that management needs that the data directory provides, including: * Information about existing corporate data * Information about how and where data is used * A means of controlling data * A means of controlling new users or modifications of existing data or processes using the data * A tool for standardising data definitions * Security of data resources The data administrator: * Helps to ensure all users are provided with the communications network and data and processing structures they need * Is responsible for implementing and maintaining DBMS and DDS * Is responsible for controlling the consistency of entries. For the Data Administrator the dictionary provides: * Description of the DB * Subschema generation * Data description for application programs * Extensive and timely on-line documentation of all data structures * An effective and uniform means of recording detail about DBMS, non-DBMS and manual systems * A valuable tool for monitoring changes * A device for estimating major cost factors in implementing planned modifications * A facility that optimises the use of corporate data * A medium through which non-data processing staff can be acquainted with corporate data. For the system analyst/designer the dictionary provides: * Verification of the structure of company data * Identification of redundancy * Implementation standards * System documentation * Description of schemas and subschemas * Description of files records and fields * Automatic COPY facilities * Cross reference to users of data * Security facilities * Responsibilities for updating * Project progress facilities. For programmers the dictionary provides: * COPY facilities * Information about interdependencies * Description of the usage of files and programs within systems * Usage of data entities * Generation of reporting facilities The auditor needs: * Control of information * Accuracy of information about flow of data * To evaluate and audit new and revised systems for accuracy, effectiveness, reliability and timeliness * Quick and effective mechanism to trace and audit all activities. THE DATA DICTIONARY ENTITY KEY ATTRIBUTE DATA TYPE SIZE VALIDATION CUSTOMER ID PRIMARY Customer ID Auto number LI SORT CODE FOREIGN *Sort code Lookup wizard / / Title Text 4 chars Mr/Mrs/Miss/Ms Customer name Text 15 chars Customer address Text 50 chars Telephone number Text 11 digit Sex Text 6 chars Male/Female Date of birth Text 8 digits Format:00/00/00 Marital status Text 7 chars Married/Single SORT CODE PRIMARY Sort code Number LI Branch name Text 20 chars Branch address Text 50 chars CUSTOMER ID PRIMARY Customer ID Lookup wizard / / CURRENT ACCOUNT NUMBER PRIMARY Current account number Number 8 digits Date of CA transaction Text 8 digits Format:00/00/00 CA start balance Currency / / CA Money out Currency / / CA Money in Currency / / CA Overdraft limit Currency / / CA Description Text 50 chars CUSTOMER ID PRIMARY Customer ID Lookup wizard / / SAVINGS ACCOUNT NUMBER PRIMARY Savings account number Number 8 digits Date of SA transaction Text 8 digits Format:00/00/00 SA start balance Currency / / SA Money out Currency / / SA Money in Currency / / SA Overdraft limit Currency / / SA Description Text 50 chars Interest earned tax year ending 2002 (before tax) Currency / / Lower rate tax deducted Currency / / CUSTOMER ID PRIMARY Customer ID Lookup wizard / / MORTGAGE ACCOUNT NUMBER PRIMARY Mortgage account number Number 8 digits Date of MA transaction Text 8 digits Format:00/00/00 Balance bought forward Currency / / MA Description Text 50 chars Debit Currency / / Credit Currency / / ENTITY RELATIONSHIP DIAGRAM An entity relationship diagram is a graphic used to represent entities and their relationships. Entities are normally shown in rectangles or squares, and relationships are shown in diamonds. The cardinality of the relationship is shown inside the diagram. The simplest form of binary relationship is a one-to-one (1:1) relationship, in which an entity of one type is related to no more than one entity of another type. The second type of binary relationship is one to many (1:N), in which an entity of one type can be related to many entities of another type. The third and final type of binary relationship is many to many (M:N), in which an entity of one type corresponds too many entities of the second type, and an entity of the second type corresponds too many entities of the first type.

Outlining on hove smartphones improved Americans live Essay

Outlining on hove smartphones improved Americans live - Essay Example The use of smartphone applications has helped healthcare professionals and laypersons in the following ways, which include; The work environment has been made more palatable through the increased acceptance of smartphones. Most companies have integrated the smartphones as integral tools for assessment, information gathering, communication and training, and transacting with clients (Pitichat 5). The specific tasks performed by the smartphones to make the functions of organizations seamless include; c. Smartphones have made it easier for employees to get in contact with clients and complete transactions offsite. This has been enhanced by the use of video conferencing capabilities of the smartphones. This platform can also be used by the management to contact their employees and amongst the employees themselves. Socialization and the entertainment of Americans have also benefited from the increased use of smartphones. The ability of phones to get Wi-Fi and the increased ability to get 4G network capabilities has enabled people to access the internet Sarwar and Soomro (223). The increased access to the internet has brought increased use of social media platforms like Twitter and Facebook and online entertainment such as the Apple Store. Entertainment has also benefited through the increased ease in accessing information and facilities such as concerts and ticketing. Pitichat, T. Smartphones in the workplace: Changing organizational behavior, transforming the future. LUX: A Journal of Transdisciplinary Writing and Research fromClaremont Graduate University, 3 (1). P. 1-10, 2013.

Napster; The P2p Model Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Napster; The P2p Model - Essay Example Peer to peer software was developed by an American Teenager, Shawn Fanning, through his system for music sharing called Napster. This allows users to swap music directly from one computer to another without the need to go through a central server.(Annonymous, 2000). The system became so popular that Napster had 20 million users in 2000, with the number ever growing. The process of downloading music off the Net was initially a cumbersome process because music files contained too much of data – up to 172 kilobytes of information per second (Westrup 2000). A single AIFF sound file used on audio CDs takes up 8.75 megabytes of storage space for each minute of music, so that even with a 56K high speed modem, an individual song would take at least an hour to be downloaded.(Woodworth, 2004). During the process of making a digital recording, sound waves are changed into the digital format. Since sound travels through the air in waves, it must first be transferred to a transducer in order to convert the sound waves into voltage variations. This further moves to an analog to digitial convertor. The analog voltage is converted into digital bits, each of which is assigned a number with a particular binary value, which are then recompiled within the storage facility of a computer.(Anderton, 1985).